Textbook Site for: | | | | | | | | Psychology , Sixth Edition
Douglas A. Bernstein - University of South Florida and University of Southampton
Louis A. Penner - University of South Florida
Alison Clarke-Stewart - University of California, Irvine
Edward J. Roy - University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign | | | | | | | | | Keyterms
Chapter 12: Human Development - Developmental psychology is the area of specialization that documents the course and causes of people's social, emotional, moral, and intellectual development throughout the life span. (see introductory section)
Example: How do children learn to use language? Do infants respond to parents' emotional cues? Do cognitive changes occur during old age? - Maturation refers to any development process (such as walking) that is guided by biological or genetic factors (nature). These processes occur in a fixed sequence and are usually unaffected by environmental conditions (nurture). (see Exploring Human Development)
Example: The development of secondary sexual characteristics occurs in a fixed sequence and is rarely affected by environmental conditions. - A zygote is the cell that results from the merging of the father's sperm and the mother's ovum. (see Prenatal Development)
- An embryo is that part of the zygote that will mature into an infant. (see Prenatal Development)
- The embryo becomes a fetus in the third prenatal stage, which lasts from the third month of pregnancy until birth. (see Prenatal Development)
- Teratogens are external substances that when introduced into the womb cause defects in the developing baby. (see Prenatal Risks)
- Critical period refers to any time period during which some developmental process must occur; if it doesn't occur then, it never will. (see Prenatal Risks)
Example: If the heart, eyes, ears, hands, and feet do not appear during the embryonic period, they will not be formed at all. - Fetal alcohol syndrome occurs in infants born to mothers who consumed heavy--sometimes even moderate--amounts of alcohol during pregnancy. The resulting defects include physical malformations of the face and mental retardation. (see Prenatal Risks)
- A schema is a basic unit of knowledge that takes the form of a pattern of action, an image of an object, or a complex idea. (see The Development of Knowledge: Piaget's Theory)
Example: Sucking on a pacifier is a schema consisting of a pattern of action. - Assimilation is the process of taking in information that adds to an existing schema. (see The Development of Knowledge: Piaget's Theory)
Example: An infant who has learned to suck milk from a bottle will use the same sucking motion or schema when a pacifier is put in its mouth for the first time. - Accommodation is the process of taking in information that causes a person to modify an existing schema. (see The Development of Knowledge: Piaget's Theory)
Example: Infants who have become very good at sucking milk from a bottle and are given a cup must learn new patterns of motor behavior (modify the old sucking schema) to get the liquid out of the cup and into their mouth. Watch small children just learning how to drink from a cup. They suck and slurp the liquid instead of pouring it into their mouth and swallowing. - The sensorimotor period is Piaget's first stage of cognitive development. The infant's mental activity is confined to sensory and motor functions such as looking and reaching. (see Sensorimotor Development)
REMEMBER: Sensori means "sensory": vision, hearing, tasting, and so on. Motor means "movement": reaching, grasping, and pulling. - Object permanence is acquired during the sensorimotor period. Because children form mental representations of objects and actions, they do not have to rely on sensory information to know that an object exists even when they cannot see or touch it. (see Sensorimotor Development)
Example: A child knows that a rattle exists when you put it behind your back, out of sight. - The preoperational period is Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, lasting from age two to age seven. Children learn to use symbols allowing them to talk, pretend, and draw. Thinking during this time is intuitive. (see Preoperational Development)
Example: Elise likes to put on her big sister's dresses and makeup and pretend that she is going out shopping. - Conservation is the knowledge that a substance's number or amount does not change even when its shape or form does. This skill is first accomplished during the concrete operational stage. (see Preoperational Development)
Example: Eva, who is babysitting for a nine-year-old and a four-year-old, pours each child a glass of lemonade. She gives the older child a tall skinny glass and the younger child a short fat glass. The four-year-old insists that the short fat glass does not contain as much lemonade as the tall skinny glass (that is, she does not understand the logic of complementarity), even after Eva has poured the contents of the tall skinny glass into the short glass and back again (reversibility). The younger child, still in the preoperational period, cannot conserve. - Concrete operations is Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, occurring approximately between the ages of seven and eleven. During this stage, children can perform such operations as addition, subtraction, and conservation (reversibility, complementarity), and visual appearances no longer dominate thinking. (see Concrete Operational Thought)
- Temperament is the style of emotional reactivity that an infant displays in response to the environment. It is the basic, natural disposition of an individual. (see Individual Temperament)
Example: When Sarah takes a bath, she squeals with delight, splashes in the water, and eagerly reaches for new toys. She has a very predictable schedule of eating and sleeping. Sarah is an easy baby. Franny, on the other hand, fusses all the time, cries very loudly whenever she encounters a new situation, person, or toy, and does not have a set schedule. Franny is a difficult baby. - Attachment is the close emotional relationship between an infant and his or her caregiver. For a secure attachment to develop, the caregiver must not only provide adequate, consistent care, but must also be loving, supportive, helpful, sensitive, and responsive. If the care is inadequate or the relationship is distant, the child may develop an anxious insecure attachment. (see The Infant Grows Attached)
Example: Johnny has an anxious insecure attachment; he is upset when his mother leaves but ignores or avoids her when she returns after a brief separation. Carl's attachment is secure; he may or may not protest when she leaves, but he greets her enthusiastically when she returns. - Authoritarian parents are firm, punitive, and unsympathetic. They demand children's obedience and value being authority figures. They do not encourage independence and seldom offer praise. (see Parenting Styles)
Example: Armand told his father he wanted to study hair design at the local beauty college. Rather than discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the choice with Armand, his father forbade him to apply to that college and ordered him to work over the summer mowing lawns. - Permissive parents give their children complete freedom, and their use of discipline is lax. (see Parenting Styles)
Example: Penny's parents often do not know where she is at night. She could stay overnight at a friend's house without needing to ask permission. - Authoritative parents reason with their children, are firm but understanding, and encourage give-and-take. As the children get older, the parents allow them increasing responsibility. These parents set limits, but they also encourage independence. (see Parenting Styles)
Example: Kiersten's mother is affectionate and encourages her to come to her to talk about anything. They have an agreement about what behaviors are acceptable, and recently they compromised on a later curfew. - Self-regulation is the ability to control one's emotions and behavior. (see Social Skills)
- Gender roles are the general patterns of work, appearance, and behavior associated with being male or female. (see Gender Roles)
Example: In our society some occupations have traditionally been considered more appropriate for men, others more appropriate for women. Men have been encouraged to become doctors and women to become nurses; men have been encouraged to become police officers, and women have not. - Gender schemas are the generalizations children develop about what toys and activities are appropriate for boys versus girls and what jobs are meant for men versus women. (see Gender Roles)
- Resilience is a phenomenon that permits successful development in the face of significant challenge. (see Risk and Resilience)
- Puberty is the condition of being able for the first time to reproduce. Its onset is characterized by menstruation in females and sperm production in males. (see The Challenges of Change)
- Ethnic identity is that part of a person's identity that reflects the racial, religious, or cultural group to which he or she belongs. (see Identity and Development of the Self)
- An identity crisis usually occurs during adolescence. By combining bits and pieces of self-knowledge learned in childhood, the individual must develop an integrated image of himself or herself as a unique person. (see Identity and Development of the Self)
Example: When Ray began college, he was rebellious and irresponsible at first. Eventually he settled down, chose a major, and became more conscientious again. - The formal operational period is Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development; on average, it begins at age eleven. During this stage, children can think and reason about abstract concepts, generate hypotheses, and think logically. (see Abstract Thought and Moral Reasoning)
Example: Children can think about abstract moral issues such as whether animals should be killed for fur or what the consequences of nuclear war might be. - Preconventional moral reasoning, according to Kohlberg's theory, is typical of children younger than nine years of age. Moral reasoning during this period is directed toward avoiding punishment and following rules to one's own advantage. (see Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning)
Example: Morgan doesn't take cookies from the jar when she isn't supposed to because she doesn't want to be grounded. - Conventional moral reasoning, according to Kohlberg's theory, is characterized by concern for other people due to social obligations such as caring for one's spouse and family. (see Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning)
Example: Juan doesn't take cookies from the jar when he isn't supposed to because it would disappoint his parents if he disobeyed them. - Postconventional moral reasoning, according to Kohlberg, is the highest level of moral reasoning; it is based upon personal standards or on universal principles of justice, equality, and respect for human life. (see Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning)
Example: Underground resistance fighters during World War II disobeyed local and German laws in order to preserve the lives of fellow countrymen. - Menopause is the natural shut-down of reproductive capability experienced by women in their late forties or early fifties. (see Adulthood)
- A crisis of generativity usually occurs during a person's thirties. People become concerned with producing something that they consider worthwhile. To resolve this crisis, people usually have children or decide to achieve an occupational goal. (see Adulthood)
Example: David is undergoing a change in perspective. He has found a partner in life, and now he is concerned with having children. - Terminal drop is the decline in mental functioning that occurs in the months or years preceding death. (see Adulthood)
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